Writing Skills

by Jim Petch

Writing is, perhaps, the principal means by which you express yourself in academic endeavours and one of the principal means by which you are judged. This situation continues after university. What ever you do, you will probably be required to write, but writing is unlikely to occupy a majority of your time. However, what you write will have an importance out of all proportion to the time taken to write it. Recall the proportion of your time spent in exams against their importance for your academic progress and success.

Even if you do not have to write a great deal you will have to write and write well. If you do not, you will struggle to get up life's greasy pole. No resits or doctors reports in real life! So... make it a priority to learn to write well. Your efforts will be repaid many times.

In the sections which follow there is a great deal of advice on how to write scientific material. These sections deal with the issues of approach and structure which vary from one type of document to another. Before that, we need to consider simply the question of good writing.

There is no single formula or set of rules for good writing. Good writing transfers ideas from the writer to the reader. People achieve this in different ways and part of the richness of our culture is that people express themselves in such a variety of ways. However, in real situations we have to face up to two constraints. First, most of us are not good writers and would benefit from training. Secondly, there are conventions in writing that we do well to keep to. There are, in other words, models of writing we should try to follow. Do not be concerned if you are being presented with guidelines where none can be justified fully; the rules and advice which follow will not put in jeopardy the survival of your culture. They may even enrich it.

Exclusions

The following guidelines do not apply to:

Legal English. Terms are subject to hostile scrutiny, but also they acquire special meaning in a legal context. The drafting legal documents should not to be judged by normal standards of good writing.

'In-house' communications. The language and style used when one expert is writing to another, or when one person in a particular institution is writing to a colleague cannot be subject to the normal rules. The ideas which are conveyed are encapsulated in forms of shorthand which outsiders are not acquainted with. Jargon is a term applied to many such forms of shorthand. In fact, as you progress through your university career you will become initiated in different forms of jargon which you will are acceptable only in the academic situation.

What follows is a distilled from the classic, and highly recommended, work on the writing of plain English; 'The Complete Plain Words' by Sir Ernest Gowers, published by Pelican.

Plain English

The guiding rule for writing plain English is 'think for others rather than for yourself'. Indeed the first principle of writing anything is: be aware of, understand and cater for your readers. Your writing has value only in the context of it being read, understood and used by someone else. All other considerations are of little importance.

Writing that is never read has no value.

Gowers gives a check list for writing letters which is adapted here for general situations.

A checklist of issues you should consider when writing in the academic context is:

Before you begin to write, you must know:
 
1. your subject have a clear understanding of your subject
2. your reason for writing know why you are writing: what does the person you are writing for want to know and why do they want to know it
3. your reader adapt your style to suit the needs of the reader and their level of knowledge

When writing, you must be:
 
1. clear make you meaning clear, arrange the material in logical order, be grammatically correct, do not include irrelevant material
2. simple and brief use the most simple and direct language appropriate to the context, avoid obscure words, keep sentences short, avoid padding
3. accurate and complete use the correct word and write everything you need to in order to convey an idea

Look critically at your written work, and ask yourself:
 
1. is it clear? can the language be understood, is it free from slang and other unnecessary words, are the words the simplest that can carry the thought, is the sentence structure clear?
2. is it simple and brief? does it give only the essential facts?
3. is it accurate? is the information correct, do the statements conform to accepted norms?
4. is it complete? does it answer all the questions and give all the necessary information?
5. is it proper? is it free from antagonistic phrases, unnecessary humour and pointless apology?

Scientific English

It is a hallmark of great scientific writing that it is clear and accessible even to non-experts. Do not make the mistake of thinking that subjects which are technically advanced or unfamiliar are somehow elevated or made more important by complex and obscure language. The precepts for official English laid down by Gowers apply equally to scientific writing. There are, however, other demands of writing in a scientific context which prompt further comments.

Compared to everyday speech and writing, scientific writing generally demands the precise marshaling of factual evidence and unraveling of complex arguments. A greater degree of precision is required than in many other forms of writing. There is less room for developing a personal style since many ideas are expressed in the shorthand forms necessary for the 'initiated' to communicate with each other. These forms include acronyms or names of theories, techniques of measurement, equipment, procedures, test situations, type examples, etc. In addition, like legal English, words take on different meanings in a scientific context and need to be treated with due respect.

There are a number of general issues which it is important to consider in scientific writing.

idiom and grammar There is a constant and vital tension between idiomatic English and grammatical English. Idiomatic means the peculiar phrasing or use of words which has developed in practice but which may be illogical. A simple example is the habit of saying 'its me'. Only a pedant (there are plenty of these in academic life so watch out) would correct someone who said 'its me'. However, in scientific writing such precision cannot be easily dismissed as pedantry. Idiomatic English cannot and should not be excluded but the demands of scientific writing means that grammar is relatively more dominant than in everyday language.

informality and humour There is little place for either in normal scientific writing. The recourse to conversational style and attempts at humour are often signs of self-consciousness and inexperience. The problem with conversational style is that it breaks too many of the rules of good writing. The use of everyday spoken phrases, including slang, is rarely sufficiently accurate or clear for scientific explanation. The problem with written humour is that it is very difficult to write. It is completely different from spoken or practical humour. It requires a higher level of control since it cannot rely on spontaneity. You can be sure that what seems funny or clever to you will seem puerile and inept in a written form.

cultured complexity Some academic disciplines are plagued with obscure and pretentious writing which you will do well to recognise and avoid emulating. Social scientists especially seem to require convoluted and technically difficult sentences, even when writing for students or ordinary people. You should however, recognise that the inclusion of new words and phrases in science is perhaps more rapid than in everyday speech, especially in relation to new technologies. You should not be afraid of using them in their proper place and of recognising that new words may have a more precise and proper use than old.

Helpful Rules for Plain English

Look critically at your written work, and ask yourself:
 
1. is it clear? can the language be understood, is it free from slang and other unnecessary words, are the words the simplest that can carry the thought, is the sentence structure clear?
Avoid superfluous words If we are concerned with the true facts what will we do when faced only with the facts?

If conditions are essential, then we shall wonder whether a condition without an adjective is really a condition at all.

Rarely is it necessary to use words such as naturally, appreciable, considerable, respective, definitely and very. The word obvious seems to be used only when things are far from obvious. Indeed, as you may have guessed, it is used like all these words as a cloak for muddled thinking.

Avoid verbosity in prepositions
Do not write: When you could write:
as a consequence of because of
by means of by or with
for the reason that because
in order to to
in accordance with by
in case of if
in the absence of without
with a view to to
prior to before

    an so on ad infinitum...
Avoid verbosity in adverbial and other phrases the words case and instance are especially troublesome in giving rise to verbosity in such phrases as in many cases. Similar problems arise with if and when, such time as, point of view. All such phrases are used for padding and to appear grand. They are rarely effective.
Choose the familiar word In your writing you will properly use jargon. It is the term for technical words and phrases which have meaning for people in particular groups with common interests. What you should avoid is the jargon of other groups. There is sometimes the temptation to embellish writing with foreign words and phrases when English ones will do. Recognise however, that the language is enriched by the inclusion of foreign words which add precision to meaning. The rule is avoid them if you can. Ask yourself if the word is used for the reader or for your self gratification.

More troublesome are overworked metaphors. Metaphors, which may once have been imaginative and original quickly become a stale substitute for thinking and when used without critical thought can often produce ridiculous results. This is especially a problem for those brought up on a diet of cheap daily newspapers. Mixed metaphors, such as the sacred cows came home to roost with a vengeance, can be particularly amusing.

Choose the precise word Recognise the lure of abstract words. Their vagueness is one reason for their popularity. Try instead to use concrete words, so
  • conclude rather than reach a conclusion,
  • investigate rather than make an investigation into and
  • consider rather than take into consideration.

Avoid the headline phrase. These generally involve the use of nouns as adjective with the hope of producing an effect. So we see

  • team selection instead of selection of the team and
  • housing position will be relieved instead of more houses will be available
Recognise and avoid clichés These are phrases which have become over-popular and hackneyed. They are used without thought and in contexts where they are no longer apt. They invariably distract and dilute meaning and serve always to reduce the effect of simple direct prose.
Recognize vogue words They can be clichés in the making. They should not be used except in their proper context and for a precise meaning but it has to be acknowledged that they can have a job to do. More often than not they are used as padding. The famous 'buzz-phrase' generators, so popular in the 1960s and 70s are the culmination of this. Gowers gives an example of one from the Canadian Defence Department, presumably generated during periods of little military tension.

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
integrated management options
overall organisational flexibility
systematised monitored capability
parallel reciprocal mobility
functional digital programming
responsive logistical concept
optimal transitional time-phase
synchronised incremental projection
compatible third-generation hardware
balanced policy contingency

To generate phrases choose one word from each column. So you can get optimal logistical mobility or, if you are not in such a hurry, responsive incremental flexibility which will not be as fast but will make you happier.

Handling Words

Getting words in the right order may seem simple enough but it is a common problem. Consider the sentence, There was a discussion on the worrying of sheep by dogs in the Minister's room. Such problems are easy to create but sometimes difficult to solve. This is especially so with the adverbs only and even. You should consider in detail the effects of placing the word only at different positions in the following sentence: His disease can only be alleviated by a surgical operation. Ask yourself what the writer meant and whether or not the sentence actually says it. The same problem arises with the word even in a sentence such as: I am not disturbed even by your threats.

Conjunctions and Prepositions

These small and simple words can wreak havoc when put in the wrong place or used carelessly. In the sentence, As they were working in the office next door, they could overhear the argument. Does this mean Since they were working.... or While they were working....?

Prepositions can be a problem. The main problem is that prepositions have precise meaning but are used loosely. Between must be used only for two things and it is incorrect to write between ..... or. Often a phrase such as the choice is between Smith or Jones appears but it is wrong.

Pronouns

Gowers's famous example, If the baby does not thrive on raw milk, boil it., says it all. Pronouns should be positioned to refer only to the noun they are meant to refer to.

Verbs

The most common problem with verbs is confusing singular and plural. This might seem a trivial issue but consider the following:

  1. Each boy and girl has been given a certificate...
  2. The chairman and not the members is attending the meeting...
  3. Neither knowledge nor skill are needed
  4. Data that is three weeks old is of no use....

1 & 2 are correct, 3 & 4 are incorrect. The final example belongs to that class of errors where we mistake plural nouns for singular. The singular of data is datum.

The use of words

Gowers ends his book with a checklist of words and phrases to be used with care. It is not possible to reproduce it here but two examples are quoted to illustrate the sorts of issues that need to be considered in the choice and use of words and secondly, to give you an indication of the level of understanding which is necessary to write good English.

Overall (adjective)

The favour that this word has won is astonishing. It is an egregious example of the process we have described of boring out a weapon of precision into a blunderbuss. Indeed the word seems to have a quality that impels people to use it in settings in which it has no meaning at all.

Examples of its meaningless use are:

When overall is not meaningless, it is commonly used as a synonym for some more familiar word, especially average, total and aggregate.

Practical, Practicable

Practical, with its implied antithesis of theoretical, means useful in practice. Practicable means capable of being carried out in action. That which is practicable is often not practical. Anything which is possible of accomplishment by available means may be called practicable. Only that which can be accomplished successfully or profitably under given circumstances may be called practical.

© Jim Petch

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